Cervical Cancer
Sources consulted
This article is original patient-education content.
- WHO—Health topics A–Z(2024)
- NHS—Health A to Z(2024)
- CDC—Health topics(2024)
Based on international clinical guidelines
Overview
Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that starts in the cervix, which is the lower part of the womb (uterus). It is often caused by certain types of a common virus called human papillomavirus (HPV). With regular screening and the HPV vaccine, it is one of the most preventable cancers.
Key facts
- Cervical cancer is highly preventable thanks to the HPV vaccine and regular cervical screening (Pap smear).
- Almost all cases are linked to infection with high-risk types of HPV.
- When found early, cervical cancer is very treatable and often curable.
Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women worldwide. However, rates have dropped in many countries because of screening and vaccination. In the UK, about 3,200 new cases are diagnosed each year.
Cervical cancer mainly affects women and people with a cervix, usually between the ages of 30 and 45. But it can occur at any age. People who have not had the HPV vaccine or regular screening are at higher risk.
Symptoms
- Heavy vaginal bleeding (soaking through a pad every hour or passing large clots)
- Sudden, severe pelvic pain
- ⚠Fever along with pelvic pain (could be a sign of infection)
- ⚠Bleeding that does not stop or becomes very heavy
Common symptoms
- Vaginal bleeding between periods, after sex, or after menopause
- Watery, pink, or foul-smelling vaginal discharge
- Pelvic pain or pain during sex
Symptoms in children
- Cervical cancer is extremely rare in children. If any unusual bleeding or discharge occurs, a doctor should evaluate it.
Symptoms in older adults
- In older adults, symptoms are similar. Any bleeding after menopause should always be checked by a healthcare provider.
Causes
Main causes
- Infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) – a very common virus that usually goes away on its own, but in some people it causes cell changes that can turn into cancer over many years
- HPV is spread through skin-to-skin contact during sexual activity. Most people will get HPV at some point, but only a small number develop cancer.
Risk factors
- Long-term infection with a high-risk type of HPV
- Smoking tobacco
- A weakened immune system (for example, from HIV or medications after an organ transplant)
- Long-term use of oral contraceptive pills (for more than 5 years)
- Having given birth to many children (high parity)
- Not attending regular cervical screening
When to see a doctor
See a doctor urgently if:
- Heavy vaginal bleeding or bleeding that soaks through a pad every hour
- Severe pelvic pain that does not go away
Book a routine appointment if:
- Bleeding between periods or after sex
- Unexplained vaginal discharge that is watery, pink, or foul-smelling
- Pain during sex or pelvic discomfort
Diagnosis
Cervical cancer is usually found during cervical screening (Pap smear) when abnormal cells are detected. If you have symptoms, your doctor will do tests to check for cancer.
Tests that may be done
- Pap smear (cervical screening) – a brush collects cells from the cervix to look for changes
- HPV test – checks for high-risk types of HPV on the cervix
- Colposcopy – a special magnifying instrument is used to look closely at the cervix; it is done in a clinic and is similar to a pelvic exam
- Biopsy – a small piece of cervical tissue is removed and examined in a lab to see if cancer is present
What to expect at your appointment
If your screening result is abnormal, you will be referred for a colposcopy. This is an outpatient procedure that may feel a bit uncomfortable, like a smear test. The doctor may take a biopsy. Results usually come back in 1 to 2 weeks. Your doctor will explain what the results mean and discuss next steps.
Treatment
Treatment for cervical cancer depends on the stage of the cancer, your overall health, and your personal choices. Options include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapies. Early-stage cancer may be treated with surgery alone. More advanced stages may need a combination of treatments. Your healthcare team will create a plan tailored to you.
Self-care at home
- Stop smoking – smoking can make treatment less effective and increase side effects
- Eat a balanced diet to help your body stay strong during treatment
- Get gentle exercise like walking, as you are able
- Tell your care team about any new symptoms or side effects
Medical treatments
Medical treatments for cervical cancer include surgery to remove the cancer, radiation therapy (using high-energy rays to kill cancer cells), and chemotherapy (medicines that kill cancer cells throughout the body). Targeted therapy and immunotherapy are also sometimes used. Your doctor will explain which treatments are recommended and why.
When is surgery considered?
Surgery is often an option for early-stage cervical cancer. It may involve removing a cone-shaped piece of the cervix (conization) or the entire cervix and womb (hysterectomy). Sometimes nearby lymph nodes are also removed. The type of surgery depends on the size and spread of the cancer, and whether you wish to preserve fertility.
Living with this condition
After treatment, you may have fatigue, bladder or bowel changes, or swelling in the legs (lymphedema). Regular follow-up appointments are important to monitor for any changes. Your care team can help manage side effects and support your recovery.
Lifestyle tips
- Avoid smoking – it can worsen treatment side effects and increase the risk of recurrence
- Stay as active as you can – gentle exercise like walking can help with fatigue and mood
- Maintain a healthy weight through a balanced diet
- Practice pelvic floor exercises if you have bladder or bowel issues
Diet and exercise
A healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean protein can support your body during and after treatment. Gentle exercise, such as walking or yoga, can improve energy, reduce stress, and strengthen your body. Always check with your doctor before starting a new exercise plan.
Mental health and emotional wellbeing
A cervical cancer diagnosis can bring anxiety, sadness, or stress. These feelings are normal. It's important to talk about them with your care team, a counsellor, or a support group. Many people find it helpful to connect with others who have had similar experiences.
Prevention
Yes, cervical cancer is one of the most preventable cancers. The two most important tools are the HPV vaccine and regular cervical screening (Pap smear). Together, they can stop most cases from ever developing.
Vaccines
The HPV vaccine protects against the high-risk HPV types that cause most cervical cancers. In the UK, it is offered to all children around age 12-13. It works best when given before any exposure to HPV, but can still be helpful for some older age groups. Talk to your healthcare provider about whether the vaccine is right for you.
Screening programmes
Cervical screening (also called a Pap smear or smear test) checks for abnormal cell changes in the cervix that could become cancer. In the UK, it is offered to women and people with a cervix from age 25 to 64 every 3 to 5 years. Regular screening can catch changes early, when they are easy to treat.
Complications
If left untreated
- The cancer may spread to nearby tissues such as the bladder or rectum
- It can spread to lymph nodes or to distant parts of the body (metastasis)
- It can cause kidney failure if it blocks the tubes (ureters) from the kidneys to the bladder
- In advanced stages, it may cause severe bleeding, pain, or weight loss
Long-term outlook
The outlook for cervical cancer is very good when it is found early. Most women with early-stage cervical cancer are cured. Even for more advanced cancers, treatments continue to improve, and many people live well for many years. Regular follow-up care and a healthy lifestyle can help you stay well.
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Always verify with your doctor
Health guidelines vary by country and region. The information in this article is based on international clinical guidelines but may not reflect the specific guidelines, medications, or practices in your country. Always discuss your health concerns with your own doctor or healthcare provider, and refer to your local national health guidelines where available.
Important notice This information is for educational purposes only. It does not replace professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider about your specific situation. If you are experiencing a medical emergency, call your local emergency services immediately.